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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Writing system</span></span>

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<p>

A <b>writing system</b> comprises a set of <a href="Symbol" title="Symbol">symbols</a>, called a <i>script</i>, as well as the rules by which the script represents a particular <a href="Language" title="Language">language</a>. The earliest <a href="Writing" title="Writing">writing</a> appeared during the late 4th millennium BC. Throughout history, each independently invented writing system gradually emerged from a system of <a href="Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">proto-writing</a>, where a small number of <a href="Ideograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideograph">ideographs</a> were used in a manner incapable of fully encoding language, and thus lacking the ability to express a broad range of ideas.

</p><p>Writing systems are generally classified according to how its symbols, called <i><a href="Grapheme" title="Grapheme">graphemes</a></i>, relate to units of language. Phonetic writing systems – which include <a href="Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabets</a> and <a href="Syllabaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllabaries">syllabaries</a> – use graphemes that correspond to sounds in the corresponding <a href="Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken language</a>. Alphabets use graphemes called <i><a href="Letter_(alphabet)" title="Letter (alphabet)">letters</a></i> that generally correspond to spoken <a href="Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a>. They are typically divided into three sub-types: <i>Pure alphabets</i> use letters to represent both <a href="Consonant" title="Consonant">consonant</a> and <a href="Vowel" title="Vowel">vowel</a> sounds, <i><a href="Abjad" title="Abjad">abjads</a></i> generally only use letters representing consonant sounds, and <i><a href="Abugida" title="Abugida">abugidas</a></i> use letters representing consonant–vowel pairs. Syllabaries use graphemes called <i><a href="Syllabogram" title="Syllabogram">syllabograms</a></i> that represent entire <a href="Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a> or <a href="Mora_(linguistics)" title="Mora (linguistics)">moras</a>. By contrast, <a href="Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">logographic</a> (or <i>morphographic</i>) writing systems use graphemes that represent the units of meaning in a language, such as its <a href="Word" title="Word">words</a> or <a href="Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a>. Alphabets typically use fewer than 100 distinct symbols, while syllabaries and logographies may use hundreds or thousands respectively.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background:_relationship_with_language">Background: relationship with language</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Written_language" title="Written language">Written language</a></div>

<p>According to most contemporary definitions, <a href="Writing" title="Writing">writing</a> is a visual and tactile notation representing <a href="Language" title="Language">language</a>. As such, the use of writing by a community presupposes an analysis of the structure of language at some level.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002151–152_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002151–152-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The symbols used in writing correspond systematically to functional units of either a <a href="Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken</a> or <a href="Signed_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Signed language">signed language</a>. This definition excludes a broader class of symbolic markings, such as drawings and maps.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid202214_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid202214-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A text is any instance of written material, including transcriptions of spoken material.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrystal2008481_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2008481-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The act of composing and recording a text is referred to as <i>writing</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBußmann19981294_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBußmann19981294-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the act of viewing and interpreting the text as <i><a href="Reading" title="Reading">reading</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBußmann1998979_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBußmann1998979-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The relationship between writing and language more broadly has been the subject of philosophical analysis as early as <a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERutkowska202396_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERutkowska202396-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the use of language is universal across human societies, writing is not; writing emerged much more recently, and was independently invented in only a handful of locations throughout history. While most spoken languages have not been written, all written languages have been predicated on an existing spoken language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers20052_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers20052-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When those with signed languages as their first language read writing associated with a spoken language, this functions as literacy in a second, acquired language.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A single language (e.g. <a href="Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a>) can be written using multiple writing systems, and a writing system can also represent multiple languages. For example, <a href="Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> have been used to write multiple languages throughout the <a href="Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Sinosphere</a> – including the <a href="Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese language</a> from at least the 13th century, until their replacement with the Latin-based <a href="Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese alphabet</a> in the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas1991113–115Hannas199773,_84–87_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas1991113–115Hannas199773,_84–87-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In the first several decades of modern <a href="Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> as a scientific discipline, linguists often characterized writing as merely the technology used to record speech – which was treated as being of paramount importance, for what was seen as the unique potential for its study to further the understanding of human cognition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESampson201641_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESampson201641-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_terminology">General terminology</h2></div>

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<p>While researchers of writing systems generally use some of the same core terminology, precise definitions and interpretations can vary by author, often depending on their theoretical approach.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A <a href="Grapheme" title="Grapheme">grapheme</a> is the basic functional unit of a writing system. Graphemes are generally defined as minimally significant elements which, when taken together, comprise the set of symbols from which texts may be constructed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKöhlerAltmannFan20084–5Coulmas2002b174–175_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKöhlerAltmannFan20084–5Coulmas2002b174–175-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All writing systems require a set of defined graphemes, collectively called a <i>script</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas200235_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas200235-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of the grapheme is similar to that of the <a href="Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a> in the study of spoken languages. Likewise, as many sonically distinct <a href="Phone_(phonetics)" title="Phone (phonetics)">phones</a> may function as the same phoneme depending on the speaker, dialect, and context, many visually distinct <a href="Glyph" title="Glyph">glyphs</a> (or <i>graphs</i>) may be identified as the same grapheme. These variant glyphs are known as the <i><a href="Allograph" title="Allograph">allographs</a></i> of a grapheme: For example, the lowercase letter <span class="nowrap">⟨a⟩</span> may be represented by the double-storey <span class="nowrap">|<span style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em">a</span>|</span> and single-storey <span class="nowrap">|<span style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em">ɑ</span>|</span> shapes,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteeleBoyes2022232_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteeleBoyes2022232-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or others written in cursive, block, or printed styles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022153–155_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022153–155-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The choice of a particular allograph may be influenced by the medium used, the writing instrument used, the stylistic choice of the writer, the preceding and succeeding graphemes in the text, the time available for writing, the intended audience, and the largely unconscious features of an individual's handwriting.

</p><p><a href="Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">correct writing</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) refers to the rules and conventions for writing shared by a community, including the ordering of and relationship between graphemes. Particularly for <a href="Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabets</a>, orthography includes the concept of <a href="Spelling" title="Spelling">spelling</a>. For example, <a href="English_orthography" title="English orthography">English orthography</a> includes <a href="Uppercase_and_lowercase" class="mw-redirect" title="Uppercase and lowercase">uppercase and lowercase</a> forms for 26 <a href="Letter_(alphabet)" title="Letter (alphabet)">letters</a> of the <a href="Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> (with these graphemes corresponding to various phonemes), punctuation marks (mostly non-phonemic), and other symbols, such as numerals. Writing systems may be regarded as complete if they are able to represent all that may be expressed in the spoken language, while a partial writing system cannot represent the spoken language in its entirety.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOttenheimer2012194_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOttenheimer2012194-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></div>

<p>In each instance, writing emerged from systems of <a href="Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">proto-writing</a>, though historically most proto-writing systems did not produce writing systems. Proto-writing uses <a href="Ideographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideographic">ideographic</a> and mnemonic symbols to communicate, but lacks the capability to fully encode language. Examples include:

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<ul><li>The <a href="Jiahu_symbols" title="Jiahu symbols">Jiahu symbols</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 7th millennium BC</span>) carved into tortoise shells, found in 24 <a href="Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> graves excavated at <a href="Jiahu" title="Jiahu">Jiahu</a> in northern China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHouston2004245–246_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHouston2004245–246-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>The <a href="Vin%C4%8Da_symbols" title="Vinča symbols">Vinča symbols</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 6th–5th millennia BC</span>) found on artefacts of the <a href="Vin%C4%8Da_culture" title="Vinča culture">Vinča culture</a> of <a href="Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central</a> and <a href="Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">Southeast Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202220–21Daniels2018148_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202220–21Daniels2018148-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Quipu" title="Quipu">Quipu</a> (15th century AD), a system of knotted cords used as mnemonic devices by the <a href="Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a> in South America.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas200220_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas200220-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<p>Writing has been invented independently multiple times in human history – first emerging as <a href="Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a>, a system initially used to write the <a href="Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian language</a> in southern Mesopotamia; it was later adapted to write <a href="Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> as its speakers spread throughout the region, with Akkadian writing appearing in significant quantities <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2350 BC</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrispijn2012184_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrispijn2012184-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cuneiform was closely followed by <a href="Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a>. It is generally agreed that the two systems were invented independently from one another; both evolved from proto-writing systems between 3400 and 3100 BC, with the earliest coherent texts dated <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2600 BC</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202221_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202221-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> emerged independently in the <a href="Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> valley <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200 BC</span>. There is no evidence of contact between China and the literate peoples of the Near East, and the Mesopotamian and Chinese approaches for representing sound and meaning are distinct.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagley2004190_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagley2004190-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz1999108_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz1999108-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeightley1983415–416_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeightley1983415–416-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="Mesoamerican_writing_systems" title="Mesoamerican writing systems">Mesoamerican writing systems</a>, including <a href="Olmec" class="mw-redirect" title="Olmec">Olmec</a> and the <a href="Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya script</a>, are likewise associated with an independent invention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202336_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202336-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>With each independent invention of writing, the ideographs used in proto-writing were decoupled from the direct representation of ideas, and gradually came to represent words instead. This occurred via application of the <a href="Rebus" title="Rebus">rebus</a> principle, where a symbol was appropriated to represent an additional word that happened to be similar in pronunciation to the word for the idea originally represented by the symbol. This allowed words without concrete visualizations to be represented by symbols for the first time; the gradual shift from ideographic symbols to those wholly representing language took place over centuries, and required the conscious analysis of a given language by those attempting to write it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobertson200421–24_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertson200421–24-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The <a href="Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2600</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2000 BC</span>), found on different types of artefacts produced by the <a href="Indus_Valley_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley Civilization">Indus Valley Civilization</a> on the <a href="Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, remains undeciphered, and whether it functioned as true writing is not agreed upon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202220Sproat2010110Gnanadesikan2009120_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202220Sproat2010110Gnanadesikan2009120-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While its origins are not visually obvious, the opportunity for Mesopotamian cultural diffusion to have introduced the concept of writing to the Indus peoples is clear.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson200920–21_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson200920–21-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Alphabetic writing descends from previous morphographic writing, and first appeared <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1800 BC</span> to write a Semitic language spoken in the <a href="Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a>. Most of the world's alphabets either descend directly from this <a href="Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic script</a>, or were directly inspired by its design. Descendants include the <a href="Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician alphabet</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1050 BC</span>), and its child in the <a href="Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 800 BC</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer200184–86_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200184–86-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillard1986396_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillard1986396-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>, which descended from the Greek alphabet, is by far the most common script used by writing systems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaarmann200496_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaarmann200496-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_by_basic_linguistic_unit">Classification by basic linguistic unit</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">List of writing systems</a></div>

<p>Writing systems are most often classified according to what units of language a system's graphemes correspond to.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202332_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202332-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the most basic level, writing systems can be either phonographic (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">sound writing</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) when graphemes represent units of sound in a language, or morphographic ('form writing') when graphemes represent units of meaning (such as <a href="Word" title="Word">words</a> or <a href="Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers200513–15Meletis2020144_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers200513–15Meletis2020144-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on the author, the older term <i>logographic</i> ('word writing') is often used, either with the same meaning as <i>morphographic</i>, or specifically in reference to systems where the basic unit being written is the word. Recent scholarship generally prefers <i>morphographic</i> over <i>logographic</i>, with the latter seen as potentially vague or misleading – in part because systems usually operate on the level of morphemes, not words.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJoyce2023152–153_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoyce2023152–153-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some authors make a distinct primary division – between <i>pleremic</i> (from Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">plḗrēs</i></span> 'full') systems with graphemes that have semantic value in isolation (like logographs), and <i>cenemic</i> (from Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">kenós</i></span> 'empty') systems with graphemes that lack any such separable meaning (like letters).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022243French1976118Joyce2023146–147Nöth1990252_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022243French1976118Joyce2023146–147Nöth1990252-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Many classifications define three primary categories, where phonographic systems are subdivided into syllabic and alphabetic (or <i>segmental</i>) systems. Syllabaries use symbols called syllabograms to represent <a href="Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a> or <a href="Mora_(linguistics)" title="Mora (linguistics)">moras</a>. Alphabets use symbols called letters that correspond to spoken phonemes (or more technically, to <a href="Diaphoneme" title="Diaphoneme">diaphonemes</a>). Alphabets are generally classified into three subtypes, with <a href="Abjad" title="Abjad">abjads</a> having letters for <a href="Consonant" title="Consonant">consonants</a>, pure alphabets having letters for both consonants and <a href="Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a>, and <a href="Abugida" title="Abugida">abugidas</a> having characters that correspond to consonant–vowel pairs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJoyce2023142_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoyce2023142-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="David_Diringer" title="David Diringer">David Diringer</a> proposed a five-fold classification of writing systems, comprising pictographic scripts, ideographic scripts, analytic transitional scripts, phonetic scripts, and alphabetic scripts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiringer196221–23_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiringer196221–23-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In practice, writing systems are classified according to the primary type of symbols used, and typically include exceptional cases where symbols function differently. For example, logographs found within phonetic systems like English include the <a href="Ampersand" title="Ampersand">ampersand</a> <span class="nowrap">⟨&⟩</span> and the numerals <span class="nowrap">⟨0⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨1⟩</span>, etc. – which correspond to specific words (<i>and</i>, <i>zero</i>, <i>one</i>, etc.) and not to the underlying sounds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202332_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202332-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most writing systems can be described as mixed systems that feature elements of both phonography and morphography.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022219_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022219-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logographic_systems">Logographic systems</h3></div>

<p>A <a href="Logogram" title="Logogram">logogram</a> is a character that represents a morpheme within a language. <a href="Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> represent the only major logographic writing systems still in use: they have historically been used to write the <a href="Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a>, as well as <a href="Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>, <a href="Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>, <a href="Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>, and other languages of the <a href="Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Sinosphere</a>. As each character represents a single unit of meaning, thousands are required to write all the words of a language. If the logograms do not adequately represent all meanings and words of a language, written language can be confusing or ambiguous to the reader.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas200240–41_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas200240–41-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Logograms are sometimes conflated with <a href="Ideogram" title="Ideogram">ideograms</a>, symbols which graphically represent abstract ideas; most linguists now reject this characterization.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas199162,_103–104Steele20179_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas199162,_103–104Steele20179-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese characters are often semantic–phonetic compounds, which include a component related to the character's meaning, and a component that gives a hint for its pronunciation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers200534_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers200534-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syllabaries">Syllabaries</h3></div>

<p>A <a href="Syllabary" title="Syllabary">syllabary</a> is a set of written symbols (called <i><a href="Syllabogram" title="Syllabogram">syllabograms</a></i>) that represent either <a href="Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a> or <a href="Mora_(linguistics)" title="Mora (linguistics)">moras</a> – a unit of <a href="Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">prosody</a> that is often but not always a syllable in length.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022240–241_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022240–241-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Syllabaries are best suited to languages with relatively simple syllable structure, since a different symbol is needed for every syllable. For example, the <a href="Japanese_writing_system" title="Japanese writing system">Japanese writing system</a> has two <a href="Kana" title="Kana">kana</a> syllabaries (<a href="Hiragana" title="Hiragana">hiragana</a> and <a href="Katakana" title="Katakana">katakana</a>) intended for use in distinct circumstances; both have syllabograms for each of the roughly 100 moras found in Japanese. By contrast, English features complex syllable structures, with a relatively large inventory of vowels and complex <a href="Consonant_cluster" title="Consonant cluster">consonant clusters</a> – for a total of 15–16 thousand distinct syllables. Some syllabaries have larger inventories: the <a href="Yi_script" title="Yi script">Yi script</a> contains 756 different symbols.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1989147_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1989147-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alphabets">Alphabets</h3></div>

<p>An <a href="Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabet</a> uses symbols (called <i><a href="Letter_(alphabet)" title="Letter (alphabet)">letters</a></i>) that correspond to the phonemes of a language, e.g. its vowels and consonants. However, these correspondences are rarely uncomplicated, and <a href="Spelling" title="Spelling">spelling</a> is often mediated by other factors than just which sounds are used by a speaker.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas200299–100,_113–114_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas200299–100,_113–114-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word <i>alphabet</i> is derived from <i><a href="Alpha" title="Alpha">alpha</a></i> and <i><a href="Beta" title="Beta">beta</a></i>, the names for the first two letters in the <a href="Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202226_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202226-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An <a href="Abjad" title="Abjad">abjad</a> is an alphabet whose letters only represent the consonantal sounds of a language. They were the first alphabets to develop historically,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202225_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202225-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with most used to write <a href="Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a>, and originally deriving from the <a href="Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic script</a>. The <a href="Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> of Semitic languages is particularly suited to this approach, as the denotation of vowels is generally redundant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer200185–90Rogers2005_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200185–90Rogers2005-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Optional markings for vowels may be used for some abjads, but are generally limited to applications like education.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer2001148MeletisDürscheid2022230_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer2001148MeletisDürscheid2022230-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many pure alphabets were derived from abjads through the addition of dedicated vowel letters, as with the derivation of the Greek alphabet from the Phoenician alphabet <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 800 BC</span>. <i>Abjad</i> is the word for "alphabet" in Arabic, and analogously derives from the traditional order of letters in the <a href="Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a> (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">'alif</i></span>, <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">bā'</i></span>, <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">jīm</i></span>, <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">dāl</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002113_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002113-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>An <a href="Abugida" title="Abugida">abugida</a> is a type of alphabet with symbols corresponding to consonant–vowel pairs, where basic symbols for each consonant are associated with an <a href="Inherent_vowel" title="Inherent vowel">inherent vowel</a> by default, and other possible vowels for each consonant are indicated via predictable modifications made to the basic symbols.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniels201884_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniels201884-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an abugida, there may be a sign for <i>k</i> with no vowel, but also one for <i>ka</i> (if <i>a</i> is the inherent vowel), and <i>ke</i> is written by modifying the <i>ka</i> sign in a way consistent with how <i>la</i> would be modified to get <i>le</i>. In many abugidas, modification consists of the addition of a vowel sign; other possibilities include rotation of the basic sign, or addition of <a href="Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a>.

</p><p>While true syllabaries have one symbol per syllable and no systematic visual similarity, the graphic similarity in most abugidas stems from their origins as abjads – with added symbols comprising markings for different vowels added onto a pre-existing base symbol. The largest single group of abugidas is the <a href="Brahmic_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmic family">Brahmic family</a> of scripts, however, which includes nearly all the scripts used in India and Southeast Asia. The name <i>abugida</i> was derived by linguist <a href="Peter_T._Daniels" title="Peter T. Daniels">Peter T. Daniels</a> (<abbr title="born" style="white-space:nowrap">b.</abbr> 1951) from the first four characters of an order of the <a href="Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez script</a>, which is used for certain Nilo-Saharan and Afro-Asiatic languages of Ethiopia and Eritrea.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022222_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022222-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Featural_systems">Featural systems</h3></div>

<p>Originally proposed as a category by <a href="Geoffrey_Sampson" title="Geoffrey Sampson">Geoffrey Sampson</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESampson198540_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESampson198540-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollinge2002382_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinge2002382-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a <a href="Featural_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Featural system">featural system</a> uses symbols representing sub-phonetic elements – e.g. those traits that can be used to distinguish between and analyse a language's phonemes, such as their <a href="Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voicing</a> or <a href="Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">place of articulation</a>. The only prominent example of a featural system is the <a href="Hangul" title="Hangul">hangul</a> script used to write Korean, where featural symbols are combined into letters, which are in turn joined into syllabic blocks. Many scholars, including <a href="John_DeFrancis" title="John DeFrancis">John DeFrancis</a>, reject a characterization of hangul as a featural system – with arguments including that Korean writers do not themselves think in these terms when writing – or question the viability of Sampson's category altogether.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002165DeFrancis1989197_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002165DeFrancis1989197-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>As hangul was consciously created by literate experts, Daniels characterizes it as a "sophisticated <a href="Grammatogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatogeny">grammatogeny</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniels201355_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniels201355-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – a writing system intentionally designed for a specific purpose, as opposed to having evolved gradually over time. Other featural grammatogenies include <a href="Shorthand" title="Shorthand">shorthands</a> developed by professionals and <a href="Constructed_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructed script">constructed scripts</a> created by hobbyists and creatives, like the <a href="Tengwar" title="Tengwar">Tengwar</a> script designed by <a href="J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a> to write the Elven languages he also constructed. Many of these feature advanced graphic designs corresponding to phonological properties. The basic unit of writing in these systems can map to anything from phonemes to words. It has been shown that even the Latin script has sub-character features.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrimus2004242–243_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrimus2004242–243-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_by_graphical_properties">Classification by graphical properties</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linearity">Linearity</h3></div>

<p>All writing is linear in the broadest sense – i.e., the spatial arrangement of symbols indicates the order in which they should be read.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers20059Coulmas2002152_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers20059Coulmas2002152-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On a more granular level, systems with discontinuous marks like <a href="Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a> can be characterized as less linear than those without.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers20059–10Daniels2018194–195_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers20059–10Daniels2018194–195-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the initial historical distinction, <i>linear</i> writing systems (e.g. the Phoenician alphabet) generally form glyphs as a series of connected lines or strokes, while systems that generally use discrete, more pictorial marks (e.g. cuneiform) are sometimes termed <i>non-linear</i>. The historical abstraction of logographs into phonographs is often associated with a linearization of the script.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell2009155–161,_259Dobbs-Allsopp202328–30Coulmas199123–24,_94_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2009155–161,_259Dobbs-Allsopp202328–30Coulmas199123–24,_94-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In <a href="Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a>, raised bumps on the writing <a href="Substrate_(printing)" title="Substrate (printing)">substrate</a> are used to encode non-linear symbols. The original system – which <a href="Louis_Braille" title="Louis Braille">Louis Braille</a> (1809–1852) invented in order to allow people with <a href="Visual_impairment" title="Visual impairment">visual impairments</a> to read and write – used characters that corresponded to the letters of the Latin alphabet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESproat2010183–186Scholes1995364_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESproat2010183–186Scholes1995364-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, that Braille is equivalent to visual writing systems in function demonstrates that the phenomenon of writing is fundamentally spatial in nature, not merely visual.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris199545_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199545-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Directionality_and_orientation"> Directionality and orientation</h3></div>

<p>Writing systems may be characterized by how text is graphically divided into lines, which are to be read in sequence:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202283_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202283-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<dd>Whether lines of text are laid out as horizontal rows or vertical columns</dd>

<dt>Lining</dt>

<dd>How each line is positioned relative to the one previous on the medium – in practice only vertical scripts vary whether columns are read in a left- or rightward order, as all horizontal scripts sequence rows from top to bottom<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022112_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022112-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd>

<dt>Directionality</dt>

<dd>How individual lines are read – whether starting from the left or right on a horizontal axis, or from the top or bottom on a vertical axis</dd></dl>

<p>In left-to-right scripts (LTR), horizontal rows are sequenced from top to bottom on a page, with each row read from left to right. Right-to-left scripts (RTL), which use the opposite directionality, include the <a href="Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022112_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022112-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Egyptian hieroglyphs were written either left-to-right or right-to-left, with the animal and human glyphs turned to face the beginning of the line. The early alphabet did not have a fixed direction, and was written both vertically and horizontally; it was most commonly written <a href="Boustrophedon" title="Boustrophedon">boustrophedonically</a>: starting in one horizontal direction, then turning at the end of the line and reversing direction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell2009235_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2009235-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The right-to-left direction of the Phoenician alphabet initially stabilized after <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 800 BC</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer200191_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200191-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Left-to-right writing has an advantage that, since most people are <a href="Right-handed" class="mw-redirect" title="Right-handed">right-handed</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_KovelCarrión-CastilloFrancks2019584Papadatou-PastouNtolkaSchmitzMartin2020482_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_KovelCarrión-CastilloFrancks2019584Papadatou-PastouNtolkaSchmitzMartin2020482-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the hand does not interfere with what is being written (which, when inked, may not have dried yet) as the hand is to the right side of the pen. The <a href="Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a> and its successors settled on a left-to-right pattern, from the top to the bottom of the page. Other scripts, such as <a href="Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic</a> and <a href="Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew</a>, came to be written right to left. Scripts that historically incorporate Chinese characters have traditionally been written vertically in columns arranged from right to left, while a horizontal direction from left to right was only widely adopted in the 20th century due to Western influence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer2001177–178_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer2001177–178-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Several scripts used in the Philippines and Indonesia, such as <a href="Hanunoo_script" title="Hanunoo script">Hanunoo</a>, are traditionally written with lines moving away from the writer, from bottom to top, but are read left to right;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan2009180_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan2009180-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a> is written from bottom to top, commonly on the corner of a stone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer200153–54_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200153–54-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ancient <a href="Libyco-Berber_alphabet" title="Libyco-Berber alphabet">Libyco-Berber alphabet</a> was also written from bottom to top.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright1996112_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright1996112-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="Bidirectional_text" title="Bidirectional text">Bidirectional text</a></li>

<li><a href="Complex_text_layout" title="Complex text layout">Complex text layout</a> (CTL)</li>

<li><a href="Defective_script" title="Defective script">Defective script</a></li>

<li><a href="Digraphia" title="Digraphia">Digraphia</a></li>

<li><a href="Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">Epigraphy</a></li>

<li><a href="Formal_language" title="Formal language">Formal language</a></li>

<li><a href="Pasigraphy" title="Pasigraphy">Pasigraphy</a></li>

<li><a href="Penmanship" title="Penmanship">Penmanship</a></li>

<li><a href="Palaeography" title="Palaeography">Palaeography</a></li>

<li><a href="Script_(Unicode)" title="Script (Unicode)">Script (Unicode)</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcription_(linguistics)" title="Transcription (linguistics)">Transcription (linguistics)</a></li>

<li><a href="X-SAMPA" title="X-SAMPA">X-SAMPA</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This view is sometimes called the "narrow definition" of writing. The "broad definition" of writing also includes <a href="Semasiography" title="Semasiography">semasiography</a> – i.e. meaningful symbols without a direct relationship to language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell200931,_51_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell200931,_51-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This is to be distinguished from the use of notation systems designed to record signed languages, such as <a href="SignWriting" title="SignWriting">SignWriting</a>.</span>

</li>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

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</style><cite id="CITEREFMaspero1870" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Maspero, Gaston (1870). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/recueildetravaux27masp/page/244/mode/2up"><i>Recueil de travaux relatifs à la philologie et à l'archéologie égyptiennes et assyriennes</i></a> (in French). Librairie Honoré Champion. p. 243.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

</p>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid202217Primus20036-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid202217Primus20036_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeletisDürscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, p. 17; <a href="#CITEREFPrimus2003">Primus (2003)</a>, p. 6.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002151–152-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002151–152_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoulmas2002">Coulmas (2002)</a>, pp. 151–152.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell200931,_51-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell200931,_51_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPowell2009">Powell (2009)</a>, pp. 31, 51.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid202214-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid202214_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeletisDürscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, p. 14.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2008481-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrystal2008481_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrystal2008">Crystal (2008)</a>, p. 481.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBußmann19981294-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBußmann19981294_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBußmann1998">Bußmann (1998)</a>, p. 1294.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBußmann1998979-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBußmann1998979_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBußmann1998">Bußmann (1998)</a>, p. 979.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERutkowska202396-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERutkowska202396_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRutkowska2023">Rutkowska (2023)</a>, p. 96.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers20052-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers20052_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogers2005">Rogers (2005)</a>, p. 2.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeletisDürscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, p. 17; citing <a href="#CITEREFMorfordWilkinsonVillwockPiñar2011">Morford et al. (2011)</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas1991113–115Hannas199773,_84–87-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas1991113–115Hannas199773,_84–87_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoulmas1991">Coulmas (1991)</a>, pp. 113–115; <a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas (1997)</a>, pp. 73, 84–87.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESampson201641-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESampson201641_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSampson2016">Sampson (2016)</a>, p. 41.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFCondorelliRutkowska2023">Condorelli & Rutkowska (2023)</a>, p. 4.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFJoyce2023">Joyce (2023)</a>, p. 141, citing <a href="#CITEREFGnanadesikan2017">Gnanadesikan (2017)</a>, p. 15.</li></ul></div></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKöhlerAltmannFan20084–5Coulmas2002b174–175-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKöhlerAltmannFan20084–5Coulmas2002b174–175_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKöhlerAltmannFan2008">Köhler, Altmann & Fan (2008)</a>, pp. 4–5; <a href="#CITEREFCoulmas2002b">Coulmas (2002b)</a>, pp. 174–175.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas200235-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas200235_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoulmas2002">Coulmas (2002)</a>, p. 35.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteeleBoyes2022232-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteeleBoyes2022232_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteeleBoyes2022">Steele & Boyes (2022)</a>, p. 232.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022153–155-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022153–155_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeletisDürscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, pp. 153–155.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOttenheimer2012194-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOttenheimer2012194_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOttenheimer2012">Ottenheimer (2012)</a>, p. 194.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHouston2004245–246-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHouston2004245–246_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHouston2004">Houston (2004)</a>, pp. 245–246.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202220–21Daniels2018148-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202220–21Daniels2018148_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCondorelli2022">Condorelli (2022)</a>, pp. 20–21; <a href="#CITEREFDaniels2018">Daniels (2018)</a>, p. 148.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas200220-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas200220_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoulmas2002">Coulmas (2002)</a>, p. 20.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrispijn2012184-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrispijn2012184_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKrispijn2012">Krispijn (2012)</a>, p. 184.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202221-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202221_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCondorelli2022">Condorelli (2022)</a>, p. 21.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagley2004190-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagley2004190_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBagley2004">Bagley (2004)</a>, p. 190.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz1999108-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz1999108_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoltz1999">Boltz (1999)</a>, p. 108.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeightley1983415–416-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeightley1983415–416_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeightley1983">Keightley (1983)</a>, pp. 415–416.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202336-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202336_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGnanadesikan2023">Gnanadesikan (2023)</a>, p. 36.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertson200421–24-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobertson200421–24_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobertson2004">Robertson 2004</a>, pp. 21–24.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202220Sproat2010110Gnanadesikan2009120-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202220Sproat2010110Gnanadesikan2009120_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCondorelli2022">Condorelli (2022)</a>, p. 20; <a href="#CITEREFSproat2010">Sproat (2010)</a>, p. 110; <a href="#CITEREFGnanadesikan2009">Gnanadesikan (2009)</a>, p. 120.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson200920–21-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson200920–21_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinson2009">Robinson (2009)</a>, pp. 20–21.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200184–86-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer200184–86_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFischer2001">Fischer (2001)</a>, pp. 84–86.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillard1986396-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillard1986396_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMillard1986">Millard (1986)</a>, p. 396.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaarmann200496-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaarmann200496_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaarmann2004">Haarmann (2004)</a>, p. 96.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202332-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202332_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan202332_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGnanadesikan2023">Gnanadesikan (2023)</a>, p. 32.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers200513–15Meletis2020144-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers200513–15Meletis2020144_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogers2005">Rogers (2005)</a>, pp. 13–15; <a href="#CITEREFMeletis2020">Meletis (2020)</a>, p. 144.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoyce2023152–153-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJoyce2023152–153_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJoyce2023">Joyce (2023)</a>, pp. 152–153.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022243French1976118Joyce2023146–147Nöth1990252-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022243French1976118Joyce2023146–147Nöth1990252_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeletisDürscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, p. 243; <a href="#CITEREFFrench1976">French (1976)</a>, p. 118; <a href="#CITEREFJoyce2023">Joyce (2023)</a>, pp. 146–147; <a href="#CITEREFNöth1990">Nöth (1990)</a>, p. 252.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoyce2023142-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJoyce2023142_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJoyce2023">Joyce (2023)</a>, p. 142.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiringer196221–23-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiringer196221–23_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDiringer1962">Diringer (1962)</a>, pp. 21–23.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022219-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022219_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeletisDürscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, p. 219.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas200240–41-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas200240–41_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoulmas2002">Coulmas (2002)</a>, pp. 40–41.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas199162,_103–104Steele20179-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas199162,_103–104Steele20179_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoulmas1991">Coulmas (1991)</a>, pp. 62, 103–104; <a href="#CITEREFSteele2017">Steele (2017)</a>, p. 9.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers200534-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers200534_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogers2005">Rogers (2005)</a>, p. 34.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022240–241-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022240–241_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeletisDürscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, pp. 240–241.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1989147-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1989147_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1989">DeFrancis (1989)</a>, p. 147.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas200299–100,_113–114-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas200299–100,_113–114_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoulmas2002">Coulmas (2002)</a>, pp. 99–100, 113–114.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202226-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202226_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCondorelli2022">Condorelli (2022)</a>, p. 26.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202225-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202225_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCondorelli2022">Condorelli (2022)</a>, p. 25.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200185–90Rogers2005-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer200185–90Rogers2005_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFischer2001">Fischer (2001)</a>, pp. 85–90; <a href="#CITEREFRogers2005">Rogers (2005)</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer2001148MeletisDürscheid2022230-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer2001148MeletisDürscheid2022230_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFischer2001">Fischer (2001)</a>, p. 148; <a href="#CITEREFMeletisDürscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, p. 230.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002113-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002113_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoulmas2002">Coulmas (2002)</a>, p. 113.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniels201884-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniels201884_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniels2018">Daniels (2018)</a>, p. 84.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022222-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022222_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeletisDürscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, p. 222.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESampson198540-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESampson198540_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSampson1985">Sampson (1985)</a>, p. 40.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinge2002382-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollinge2002382_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCollinge2002">Collinge (2002)</a>, p. 382.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002165DeFrancis1989197-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas2002165DeFrancis1989197_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoulmas2002">Coulmas (2002)</a>, p. 165; <a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1989">DeFrancis (1989)</a>, p. 197.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniels201355-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniels201355_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniels2013">Daniels (2013)</a>, p. 55.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrimus2004242–243-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrimus2004242–243_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrimus2004">Primus (2004)</a>, pp. 242–243.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers20059Coulmas2002152-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers20059Coulmas2002152_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogers2005">Rogers (2005)</a>, p. 9; <a href="#CITEREFCoulmas2002">Coulmas (2002)</a>, p. 152.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers20059–10Daniels2018194–195-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers20059–10Daniels2018194–195_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogers2005">Rogers (2005)</a>, pp. 9–10; <a href="#CITEREFDaniels2018">Daniels (2018)</a>, pp. 194–195.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2009155–161,_259Dobbs-Allsopp202328–30Coulmas199123–24,_94-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell2009155–161,_259Dobbs-Allsopp202328–30Coulmas199123–24,_94_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPowell2009">Powell (2009)</a>, pp. 155–161, 259; <a href="#CITEREFDobbs-Allsopp2023">Dobbs-Allsopp (2023)</a>, pp. 28–30; <a href="#CITEREFCoulmas1991">Coulmas (1991)</a>, pp. 23–24, 94.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESproat2010183–186Scholes1995364-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESproat2010183–186Scholes1995364_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSproat2010">Sproat (2010)</a>, pp. 183–186; <a href="#CITEREFScholes1995">Scholes (1995)</a>, p. 364.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199545-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris199545_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris1995">Harris (1995)</a>, p. 45.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202283-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202283_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCondorelli2022">Condorelli (2022)</a>, p. 83.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022112-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022112_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeletisDürscheid2022112_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeletisDürscheid2022">Meletis & Dürscheid (2022)</a>, p. 112.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell2009235-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowell2009235_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPowell2009">Powell (2009)</a>, p. 235.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200191-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer200191_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFischer2001">Fischer (2001)</a>, p. 91.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_KovelCarrión-CastilloFrancks2019584Papadatou-PastouNtolkaSchmitzMartin2020482-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_KovelCarrión-CastilloFrancks2019584Papadatou-PastouNtolkaSchmitzMartin2020482_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_KovelCarrión-CastilloFrancks2019">de Kovel, Carrión-Castillo & Francks (2019)</a>, p. 584; <a href="#CITEREFPapadatou-PastouNtolkaSchmitzMartin2020">Papadatou-Pastou et al. (2020)</a>, p. 482.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer2001177–178-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer2001177–178_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFischer2001">Fischer (2001)</a>, pp. 177–178.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan2009180-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGnanadesikan2009180_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGnanadesikan2009">Gnanadesikan (2009)</a>, p. 180.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200153–54-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer200153–54_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFischer2001">Fischer (2001)</a>, pp. 53–54.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright1996112-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanielsBright1996112_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDanielsBright1996">Daniels & Bright (1996)</a>, p. 112.</span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

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</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em">

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<li><cite id="CITEREFCoulmas2002b" class="citation book cs1">——— (2002b) [1996]. <i>The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems</i> (Reprint ed.). Blackwell. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-631-19446-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFDaniels2018" class="citation book cs1">——— (2018). <i>An Exploration of Writing</i>. Equinox. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-78179-528-6</bdi>.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFDeFrancis1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="John_DeFrancis" title="John DeFrancis">DeFrancis, John</a> (1989). <i>Visible Speech: The Diverse Oneness of Writing Systems</i>. University of Hawaiʻi Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8248-1207-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFKeightley1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="David_Keightley" title="David Keightley">Keightley, David N.</a> (1983). <i>The Origins of Chinese Civilization</i>. University of California Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-520-04229-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKöhlerAltmannFan2008" class="citation book cs1">Köhler, Reinhard; Altmann, Gabriel; Fan, Fengxiang, eds. (2008). <i>Analyses of Script: Properties of Characters and Writing Systems</i>. Quantitative Linguistics. Vol. 63. Mouton de Gruyter. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-11-019641-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMeletis2020" class="citation book cs1">Meletis, Dimitrios (2020). <i>The Nature of Writing: A Theory of Grapholinguistics</i>. Grapholinguistics and Its Applications. Vol. 3. Fluxus. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.36824%2F2020-meletis">10.36824/2020-meletis</a></span>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-2-9570549-2-3</bdi>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2681-8566">2681-8566</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMeletisDürscheid2022" class="citation book cs1">———; Dürscheid, Christa (2022). <i>Writing Systems and Their Use: An Overview of Grapholinguistics</i>. Trends in Linguistics. Vol. 369. De Gruyter Mouton. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-11-075777-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMillard1986" class="citation journal cs1">Millard, A. R. (1986). "The Infancy of the Alphabet". <i>World Archaeology</i>. <b>17</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">390–</span>398. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1986.9979978">10.1080/00438243.1986.9979978</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMorfordWilkinsonVillwockPiñar2011" class="citation journal cs1">Morford, Jill P.; Wilkinson, Erin; Villwock, Agnes; Piñar, Pilar; Kroll, Judith F. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3034361">"When deaf signers read English: Do written words activate their sign translations?"</a>. <i>Cognition</i>. <b>118</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">286–</span>292. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cognition.2010.11.006">10.1016/j.cognition.2010.11.006</a></span>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3034361">3034361</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21145047">21145047</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNöth1990" class="citation book cs1">Nöth, Winfried (1990). <i>Handbook of Semiotics</i>. Advances in Semiotics. Indiana University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-253-34120-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFOttenheimer2012" class="citation book cs1">Ottenheimer, Harriet Joseph (2012). <i>The Anthropology of Language: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology</i>. Cengage. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-133-70909-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPapadatou-PastouNtolkaSchmitzMartin2020" class="citation journal cs1">Papadatou-Pastou, Marietta; Ntolka, Eleni; Schmitz, Judith; Martin, Maryanne; Munafò, Marcus R.; Ocklenburg, Sebastian; Paracchini, Silvia (2020). "Human handedness: A meta-analysis". <i>Psychological Bulletin</i>. <b>146</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">481–</span>524. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fbul0000229">10.1037/bul0000229</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10023%2F19889">10023/19889</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1939-1455">1939-1455</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32237881">32237881</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:214768754">214768754</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPowell2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Barry_B._Powell" title="Barry B. Powell">Powell, Barry B.</a> (2012) [2009]. <i>Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-118-25532-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPrimus2003" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Primus, Beatrice (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fzfsw.2003.22.1.3">"Zum Silbenbegriff in der Schrift-, Laut- und Gebärdensprache—Versuch einer mediumübergreifenden Fundierung"</a> [On the concept of syllables in written, spoken and sign language—an attempt to provide a cross-medium foundation]. <i>Zeitschrift für Sprachwissenschaft</i> (in German). <b>22</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">3–</span>55. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fzfsw.2003.22.1.3">10.1515/zfsw.2003.22.1.3</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1613-3706">1613-3706</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPrimus2004" class="citation journal cs1">——— (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171010183819/http://idsl1.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/fileadmin/IDSLI/dozentenseiten/artikel_primus/Primus_Featural_Analysis_2004.pdf">"A featural analysis of the Modern Roman Alphabet"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Written Language and Literacy</i>. <b>7</b> (2). John Benjamins: <span class="nowrap">235–</span>274. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fwll.7.2.06pri">10.1075/wll.7.2.06pri</a>. <a href="EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1570-6001">1570-6001</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1387-6732">1387-6732</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://idsl1.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/fileadmin/IDSLI/dozentenseiten/artikel_primus/Primus_Featural_Analysis_2004.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 10 October 2017.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2009" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, Andrew (2009). <i>Writing and Script: A Very Short Introduction</i>. Very Short Introductions. Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-956778-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRogers2005" class="citation book cs1">Rogers, Henry (2005). <i>Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach</i>. Blackwell Textbooks in Linguistics. Blackwell. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-631-23463-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSampson1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Geoffrey_Sampson" title="Geoffrey Sampson">Sampson, Geoffrey</a> (1985). <i>Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction</i>. Stanford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8047-1254-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSampson2016" class="citation book cs1">——— (2016). "Writing systems: methods for recording language". In <a href="Keith_Allan_(linguist)" title="Keith Allan (linguist)">Allan, Keith</a> (ed.). <i>The Routledge Handbook of Linguistics</i>. Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">47–</span>61. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-415-83257-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchmandt-Besserat1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Denise_Schmandt-Besserat" title="Denise Schmandt-Besserat">Schmandt-Besserat, Denise</a> (1996) [1992]. <i>How Writing Came About</i>. University of Texas Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-292-77704-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSproat2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Richard_Sproat" title="Richard Sproat">Sproat, Richard</a> (2010). <i>Language, Technology, and Society</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-954938-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSteele2017" class="citation book cs1">Steele, Philippa M., ed. (2017). <i>Understanding Relations Between Scripts: The Aegean Writing Systems</i>. Vol. I. Oxbow. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-78570-644-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSteeleBoyes2022" class="citation book cs1">———; Boyes, Philip J., eds. (2022). <i>Writing Around the Ancient Mediterranean: Practices and Adaptations</i>. Contexts Of and Relations Between Early Writing Systems. Vol. 6. Oxbow. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-78925-850-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTabouret-KellerLe_PageGardner-ChlorosVarro1997" class="citation book cs1">Tabouret-Keller, Andrée; Le Page, Robert B.; Gardner-Chloros, Penelope; Varro, Gabrielle, eds. (1997). <i>Vernacular Literacy: A Re-Evaluation</i>. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics. Vol. 13. Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-823635-1</bdi>.</cite>

<ul><li><span id="CITEREFBaker1997" class="citation">Baker, Philip. "Developing ways of writing vernaculars: problems and solutions in a historical perspective". In <a href="#CITEREFTabouret-KellerLe_PageGardner-ChlorosVarro1997">Tabouret-Keller et al. (1997)</a>, pp. 93–141.</span></li></ul></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTaylorOlson1995" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Insup; Olson, David R., eds. (1995). <i>Scripts and Literacy: Reading and Learning to Read Alphabets, Syllabaries and Characters</i>. Neuropsychology and Cognition. Vol. 7. Springer. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-94-010-4506-3</bdi>.</cite>

<ul><li><span id="CITEREFScholes1995" class="citation">Scholes, Robert J. "Orthography, vision, and phonemic awareness". In <a href="#CITEREFTaylorOlson1995">Taylor & Olson (1995)</a>, pp. 359–374.</span></li></ul></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFVoogtQuack2012" class="citation book cs1">Voogt, Alexander J. de; Quack, Joachim Friedrich, eds. (2012). <i>The Idea of Writing: Writing Across Borders</i>. Brill. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-90-04-21545-0</bdi>.</cite>

<ul><li><span id="CITEREFKrispijn2012" class="citation">Krispijn, Theo J. H. "Writing Semitic with cuneiform script. The interaction of Sumerian and Akkadian orthography in the second half of the third millennium BC". In <a href="#CITEREFVoogtQuack2012">Voogt & Quack (2012)</a>, pp. 181–218.</span></li></ul></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWoodsEmberlingTeeter2010" class="citation book cs1">Woods, Christopher; Emberling, Geoff; Teeter, Emily (2010). <i>Visible Language: Inventions of Writing in the Ancient Middle East and Beyond</i>. Oriental Institute Museum Publications. Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-885923-76-9</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldswritingsystems.org/">The World's Writing Systems</a> – all 294 known writing systems, each with a typographic reference glyph and Unicode status</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Writing_systems125" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="Index_of_language_articles" title="Index of language articles">Index of language articles</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Language" title="Language">Language</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_alphabet" title="History of the alphabet">History of the alphabet</a></li>

<li><a href="Grapheme" title="Grapheme">Graphemes</a></li>

<li><a href="Script_(Unicode)" title="Script (Unicode)">Scripts in Unicode</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Writing systems</a></li>

<li>Languages by writing system / <a href="List_of_languages_by_first_written_account" title="List of languages by first written account">by first written account</a></li>

<li><a href="Ancient_text_corpora" title="Ancient text corpora">Ancient languages corpuses by size</a></li>

<li><a href="Undeciphered_writing_systems" title="Undeciphered writing systems">Undeciphered writing systems</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_creators_of_writing_systems" title="List of creators of writing systems">Creators of writing systems</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abjad" title="Abjad">Abjads</a></li>

<li><a href="Abugida" title="Abugida">Abugidas</a></li>

<li><a href="Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabets</a></li>

<li><a href="Featural_writing_system" title="Featural writing system">Featural</a></li>

<li><a href="Ideogram" title="Ideogram">Ideogrammic</a></li>

<li><a href="Logogram" title="Logogram">Logographic</a></li>

<li><a href="Numeral_system" title="Numeral system">Numeral</a></li>

<li><a href="Phonogram_(linguistics)" title="Phonogram (linguistics)">Phonogrammic</a></li>

<li><a href="Pictogram" title="Pictogram">Pictographic</a></li>

<li><a href="Semi-syllabary" title="Semi-syllabary">Semi-syllabaries</a></li>

<li><a href="Shorthand" title="Shorthand">Shorthand</a></li>

<li><a href="Syllabary" title="Syllabary">Syllabaries</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current examples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a></li>

<li><a href="Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian syllabics</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese</a></li>

<li><a href="Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></li>

<li><a href="Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></li>

<li><a href="Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li>

<li><a href="Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongolian</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Writing_systems_of_Africa" title="Writing systems of Africa">In Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Writing_systems_of_Southeast_Asia" title="Writing systems of Southeast Asia">In Southeast Asia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_writing_systems56" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types_of_writing_systems56" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Types</a> of </div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></li>

<li><a href="Grapheme" title="Grapheme">Grapheme</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Writing systems</a>

<ul><li><a href="Undeciphered_writing_systems" title="Undeciphered writing systems">undeciphered</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_creators_of_writing_systems" title="List of creators of writing systems">inventors</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_constructed_scripts" title="List of constructed scripts">constructed</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Languages by writing system / <a href="List_of_languages_by_first_written_accounts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of languages by first written accounts">by first written accounts</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types56" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Types</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Abjads0" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Abjad" title="Abjad">Abjads</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Numerals</a></i></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Hatran_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Hatran alphabet">Hatran</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Elifba_alphabet" title="Elifba alphabet">Elifba</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a></li>

<li><a href="Elymaic" title="Elymaic">Elymaic</a></li>

<li><a href="Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ktav_Ashuri" title="Ktav Ashuri">Ashuri</a></li>

<li><a href="Cursive_Hebrew" title="Cursive Hebrew">Cursive</a></li>

<li><a href="Rashi_script" title="Rashi script">Rashi</a></li>

<li><a href="Solitreo" title="Solitreo">Solitreo</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a></li>

<li><a href="Mandaic_alphabet" title="Mandaic alphabet">Mandaic</a></li>

<li><a href="Manichaean_script" title="Manichaean script">Manichaean</a></li>

<li><a href="Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean</a></li>

<li><a href="Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></li>

<li><a href="Pahlavi_scripts" title="Pahlavi scripts">Pahlavi</a>

<li><a href="Inscriptional_Pahlavi" title="Inscriptional Pahlavi">Inscriptional</a></li>

<li><a href="Inscriptional_Parthian" title="Inscriptional Parthian">Inscriptional Parthian</a></li>

<li><a href="Psalter_Pahlavi" title="Psalter Pahlavi">Psalter</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pegon_script" title="Pegon script">Pegon</a></li>

<li><a href="Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician</a>

<ul><li><a href="Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pitman_shorthand" title="Pitman shorthand">Pitman shorthand</a></li>

<li><a href="Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic</a></li>

<li><a href="Punic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Punic alphabet">Punic</a></li>

<li><a href="Samaritan_script" title="Samaritan script">Samaritan</a></li>

<li><a href="Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">South Arabian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ancient_South_Arabian_script#Zabur_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Zabur</a></li>

<li><a href="Ancient_South_Arabian_script#Musnad" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Musnad</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sogdian_alphabet" title="Sogdian alphabet">Sogdian</a></li>

<li><a href="Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac</a>

<ul><li><a href="Syriac_alphabet#Classical_ʾEsṭrangēlā" title="Syriac alphabet">ʾEsṭrangēlā</a></li>

<li><a href="Syriac_alphabet#West_Syriac_Serṭā" title="Syriac alphabet">Serṭā</a></li>

<li><a href="Syriac_alphabet#East_Syriac_Maḏnḥāyā" title="Syriac alphabet">Maḏnḥāyā</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Teeline_Shorthand" class="mw-redirect" title="Teeline Shorthand">Teeline Shorthand</a></li>

<li><a href="Ugaritic_alphabet" title="Ugaritic alphabet">Ugaritic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Abugidas0" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Abugida" title="Abugida">Abugidas</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Brahmic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Northern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bengali%E2%80%93Assamese_script" title="Bengali–Assamese script">Bengali–Assamese</a></li>

<li><a href="Bhaiksuki_script" title="Bhaiksuki script">Bhaiksuki</a></li>

<li><a href="Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a></li>

<li><a href="Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></li>

<li><a href="Dogri_script" title="Dogri script">Dogri</a></li>

<li><a href="Gujarati_script" title="Gujarati script">Gujarati</a></li>

<li><a href="Gupta_script" title="Gupta script">Gupta</a></li>

<li><a href="Gurmukhi" title="Gurmukhi">Gurmukhi</a></li>

<li><a href="Kaithi" title="Kaithi">Kaithi</a></li>

<li><a href="Kalinga_script" title="Kalinga script">Kalinga</a></li>

<li><a href="Khema_script" title="Khema script">Khema</a></li>

<li><a href="Khojki_script" title="Khojki script">Khojki</a></li>

<li><a href="Khudabadi_script" title="Khudabadi script">Khudabadi</a></li>

<li><a href="La%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8D%C4%81_scripts" title="Laṇḍā scripts">Laṇḍā</a></li>

<li><a href="Lepcha_script" title="Lepcha script">Lepcha</a></li>

<li><a href="Mahajani" title="Mahajani">Mahajani</a></li>

<li><a href="Marchen_script" title="Marchen script">Marchen</a></li>

<li><a href="Meitei_script" title="Meitei script">Meitei</a></li>

<li><a href="Multani_script" title="Multani script">Multani</a></li>

<li><a href="N%C4%81gar%C4%AB_script" title="Nāgarī script">Nagari</a></li>

<li><a href="Nandinagari" title="Nandinagari">Nandinagari</a></li>

<li><a href="Newari_scripts" title="Newari scripts">Nepalese scripts</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bhujimol_script" title="Bhujimol script">Bhujimol</a></li>

<li>Golmol</li>

<li>Himmol</li>

<li>Kummol</li>

<li>Kvemmol</li>

<li>Pachumol</li>

<li><a href="Pracalit_script" title="Pracalit script">Pracalit</a></li>

<li><a href="Ranjana_script" title="Ranjana script">Ranjana</a></li>

<li><a href="Tamyig_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamyig script">Tamyig</a></li>

<li><a href="Tirhuta_script" title="Tirhuta script">Tirhuta</a></li>

<li><a href="Limbu_script" title="Limbu script">Limbu</a></li>

<li><a href="Nepalese_scripts" class="mw-redirect" title="Nepalese scripts">Litumol</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Karani_script" title="Karani script">Karani</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="%CA%BCPhags-pa_script" title="ʼPhags-pa script">ʼPhags-pa</a></li>

<li><a href="Sharada_script" title="Sharada script">Sharada</a></li>

<li><a href="Siddha%E1%B9%83_script" title="Siddhaṃ script">Siddhaṃ</a></li>

<li><a href="Soyombo_script" title="Soyombo script">Soyombo</a></li>

<li><a href="Sylheti_Nagri" title="Sylheti Nagri">Sylheti Nagri</a></li>

<li><a href="Takri_script" title="Takri script">Takri</a></li>

<li><a href="Tibetan_script" title="Tibetan script">Tibetan</a>

<ul><li><a href="Uchen_script" title="Uchen script">Uchen</a></li>

<li><a href="Tocharian_script" title="Tocharian script">Tocharian</a></li>

<li><a href="Zanabazar_square_script" title="Zanabazar square script">Zanabazar square</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Balinese_script" title="Balinese script">Balinese</a></li>

<li><a href="Batak_script" title="Batak script">Batak</a></li>

<li><a href="Baybayin" title="Baybayin">Baybayin</a></li>

<li><a href="Bhattiprolu_script" title="Bhattiprolu script">Bhattiprolu</a></li>

<li><a href="Buhid_script" title="Buhid script">Buhid</a></li>

<li><a href="Chakma_script" title="Chakma script">Chakma</a></li>

<li><a href="Fakkham_script" title="Fakkham script">Fakkham</a></li>

<li><a href="Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha</a></li>

<li><a href="Goykanadi" title="Goykanadi">Goykanadi</a></li>

<li><a href="Hanunoo_script" title="Hanunoo script">Hanunoo</a></li>

<li><a href="Javanese_script" title="Javanese script">Javanese</a></li>

<li><a href="Kadamba_script" title="Kadamba script">Kadamba</a></li>

<li><a href="Kannada_script" title="Kannada script">Kannada</a></li>

<li><a href="S'gaw_Karen_alphabet" title="S'gaw Karen alphabet">Karen</a></li>

<li><a href="Khmer_script" title="Khmer script">Khmer</a>

<li><a href="Kulitan" title="Kulitan">Kulitan</a></li>

<li><a href="Tai_Tham_script" title="Tai Tham script">Lanna</a></li>

<li><a href="Langdi" title="Langdi">Langdi</a></li>

<li><a href="Lontara_script" title="Lontara script">Lontara</a>

<ul><li><a href="Lontara_Bilang-bilang_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Lontara Bilang-bilang script">Bilang-bilang</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Makasar_script" title="Makasar script">Makasar</a></li>

<li><a href="Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam</a></li>

<li><a href="Maldivian_writing_systems" title="Maldivian writing systems">Old Maldivian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Dhives_Akuru" title="Dhives Akuru">Dhives Akuru</a></li>

<li><a href="Eveyla_Akuru" class="mw-redirect" title="Eveyla Akuru">Eveyla Akuru</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mon%E2%80%93Burmese_script" title="Mon–Burmese script">Mon–Burmese</a></li>

<li><a href="Pallava_script" title="Pallava script">Pallava</a></li>

<li><a href="Saurashtra_script" title="Saurashtra script">Saurashtra</a></li>

<li><a href="Sinhala_script" title="Sinhala script">Sinhala</a></li>

<li><a href="Sukhothai_script" title="Sukhothai script">Sukhothai</a></li>

<li><a href="Sundanese_script" title="Sundanese script">Sundanese</a>

<ul><li><a href="Old_Sundanese_script" title="Old Sundanese script">Old Sundanese</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Tagbanwa_script" title="Tagbanwa script">Tagbanwa</a></li>

<li><a href="Tamil_script" title="Tamil script">Tamil</a></li>

<li><a href="Tamil-Brahmi" title="Tamil-Brahmi">Tamil-Brahmi</a></li>

<li><a href="Tanchangya_script" title="Tanchangya script">Tanchangya</a></li>

<li><a href="Telugu_script" title="Telugu script">Telugu</a></li>

<li><a href="Tigalari_script" title="Tigalari script">Tigalari</a></li>

<li><a href="Ulu_scripts" title="Ulu scripts">Ulu scripts</a>

<ul><li><a href="Incung_script" title="Incung script">Incung</a></li>

<li><a href="Lampung_script" title="Lampung script">Lampung</a></li>

<li><a href="Lembak_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Lembak script">Lembak</a></li>

<li><a href="Pasemah_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Pasemah script">Pasemah</a></li>

<li><a href="Rejang_alphabet" title="Rejang alphabet">Rejang</a></li>

<li><a href="Serawai_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Serawai script">Serawai</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Vatteluttu" title="Vatteluttu">Vatteluttu</a>

<ul><li><a href="Kolezhuthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolezhuthu">Kolezhuthu</a></li>

<li><a href="Malayanma" title="Malayanma">Malayanma</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bharati_script" title="Bharati script">Bharati</a></li>

<li><a href="Boyd's_syllabic_shorthand" title="Boyd's syllabic shorthand">Boyd's syllabic shorthand</a></li>

<li><a href="Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian syllabics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Blackfoot_language#Writing_system" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot</a></li>

<li><a href="Carrier_syllabics" title="Carrier syllabics">Déné syllabics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez</a></li>

<li><a href="Gunjala_Gondi_script" title="Gunjala Gondi script">Gunjala Gondi</a></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_Braille" title="Japanese Braille">Japanese Braille</a></li>

<li><a href="Sarati" title="Sarati">Sarati</a></li>

<li><a href="Sunwar_language#Writing_Systems" title="Sunwar language">Jenticha</a></li>

<li><a href="Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a></li>

<li><a href="Mandombe_script" title="Mandombe script">Mandombe</a></li>

<li><a href="Gondi_writing" title="Gondi writing">Masaram Gondi</a></li>

<li><a href="Meroitic_script" title="Meroitic script">Meroitic</a></li>

<li><a href="Mwangwego_script" title="Mwangwego script">Mwangwego</a></li>

<li><a href="Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a></li>

<li><a href="Sorang_Sompeng_script" title="Sorang Sompeng script">Sorang Sompeng</a></li>

<li><a href="Tengwar" title="Tengwar">Tengwar</a></li>

<li><a href="Thaana" title="Thaana">Thaana</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Natural_Shorthand" title="Thomas Natural Shorthand">Thomas Natural Shorthand</a></li>

<li><a href="Warang_Citi" title="Warang Citi">Warang Citi</a></li>

<li><a href="Mwangwego_script" title="Mwangwego script">Mwangwego</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Alphabets0" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabets</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Linear</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Adlam_script" title="Adlam script">Adlam</a></li>

<li><a href="Ariyaka_script" title="Ariyaka script">Ariyaka</a></li>

<li><a href="Armenian_alphabet" title="Armenian alphabet">Armenian</a></li>

<li><a href="Avestan_alphabet" title="Avestan alphabet">Avestan</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pazend" title="Pazend">Pazend</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Avoiuli" title="Avoiuli">Avoiuli</a></li>

<li><a href="Bassa_Vah_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bassa Vah script">Bassa Vah</a></li>

<li><a href="Carian_alphabets" title="Carian alphabets">Carian</a></li>

<li><a href="Caucasian_Albanian_script" title="Caucasian Albanian script">Caucasian Albanian</a></li>

<li><a href="Cirth" title="Cirth">Cirth</a></li>

<li><a href="Coelbren_y_Beirdd" title="Coelbren y Beirdd">Coelbren</a></li>

<li><a href="Coorgi%E2%80%93Cox_alphabet" title="Coorgi–Cox alphabet">Coorgi–Cox alphabet</a></li>

<li><a href="Coptic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic alphabet">Coptic</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Serbian_Cyrillic" class="mw-redirect" title="Serbian Cyrillic">Serbian</a></li>

<li><a href="Early_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Early Cyrillic alphabet">Early</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Deseret_alphabet" title="Deseret alphabet">Deseret</a></li>

<li><a href="Duployan_shorthand" title="Duployan shorthand">Duployan shorthand</a>

<ul><li><a href="Duployan_shorthand#Chinook_writing" title="Duployan shorthand">Chinook</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Eclectic_shorthand" title="Eclectic shorthand">Eclectic shorthand</a></li>

<li><a href="Elbasan_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Elbasan script">Elbasan</a></li>

<li><a href="Enochian" title="Enochian">Enochian</a></li>

<li><a href="Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">Etruscan</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Psalmanazar#Pseudo-lexicographer" title="George Psalmanazar">Formosan</a></li>

<li><a href="Fraser_script" title="Fraser script">Fraser</a></li>

<li><a href="Gabelsberger_shorthand" title="Gabelsberger shorthand">Gabelsberger shorthand</a></li>

<li><a href="Gadabuursi_Somali_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadabuursi Somali script">Gadabuursi</a></li>

<li><a href="Garay_alphabet" title="Garay alphabet">Garay alphabet</a></li>

<li><a href="Georgian_scripts" title="Georgian scripts">Georgian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Asomtavruli" class="mw-redirect" title="Asomtavruli">Asomtavruli</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuskhuri" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuskhuri">Nuskhuri</a></li>

<li><a href="Mkhedruli" class="mw-redirect" title="Mkhedruli">Mkhedruli</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Glagolitic_script" title="Glagolitic script">Glagolitic</a></li>

<li><a href="Gothic_alphabet" title="Gothic alphabet">Gothic</a></li>

<li><a href="Gregg_shorthand" title="Gregg shorthand">Gregg shorthand</a></li>

<li><a href="Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a> (<a href="Archaic_Greek_alphabets" title="Archaic Greek alphabets">Archaic</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Greco-Iberian_alphabet" title="Greco-Iberian alphabet">Greco-Iberian alphabet</a></li>

<li><a href="Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></li>

<li><a href="Hanifi_Rohingya_script" title="Hanifi Rohingya script">Hanifi</a></li>

<li><a href="Sunuwar_alphabet" title="Sunuwar alphabet">Sunuwar</a></li>

<li><a href="Kaddare_script" title="Kaddare script">Kaddare</a></li>

<li><a href="Kayah_Li_alphabet" title="Kayah Li alphabet">Kayah Li</a></li>

<li><a href="Klingon_scripts" title="Klingon scripts">Klingon</a></li>

<li><a href="Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a>

<ul><li><a href="Beneventan_script" title="Beneventan script">Beneventan</a></li>

<li><a href="Blackletter" title="Blackletter">Blackletter</a></li>

<li><a href="Carolingian_minuscule" title="Carolingian minuscule">Carolingian minuscule</a></li>

<li><a href="Fraktur" title="Fraktur">Fraktur</a></li>

<li><a href="Gaelic_type" title="Gaelic type">Gaelic</a></li>

<li><a href="Insular_script" title="Insular script">Insular</a></li>

<li><a href="Kurrent" title="Kurrent">Kurrent</a></li>

<li><a href="Merovingian_script" title="Merovingian script">Merovingian</a></li>

<li><a href="Scribal_abbreviation" title="Scribal abbreviation">Sigla</a></li>

<li><a href="S%C3%BCtterlin" title="Sütterlin">Sütterlin</a></li>

<li><a href="Tironian_notes" title="Tironian notes">Tironian notes</a></li>

<li><a href="Visigothic_script" title="Visigothic script">Visigothic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Lycian_alphabet" title="Lycian alphabet">Lycian</a></li>

<li><a href="Lydian_alphabet" title="Lydian alphabet">Lydian</a></li>

<li><a href="Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a></li>

<li><a href="Medefaidrin" title="Medefaidrin">Medefaidrin</a></li>

<li><a href="Molodtsov_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Molodtsov alphabet">Molodtsov</a></li>

<li><a href="Mundari_Bani" title="Mundari Bani">Mundari Bani</a></li>

<li><a href="Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a></li>

<li><a href="Ol_Chiki_script" title="Ol Chiki script">Ol Chiki</a></li>

<li><a href="Old_Hungarian_script" title="Old Hungarian script">Old Hungarian</a></li>

<li><a href="Old_Italic_scripts" title="Old Italic scripts">Old Italic</a></li>

<li><a href="Old_Permic_script" title="Old Permic script">Old Permic</a></li>

<li><a href="Old_Turkic_script" title="Old Turkic script">Orkhon</a></li>

<li><a href="Old_Uyghur_alphabet" title="Old Uyghur alphabet">Old Uyghur</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongolian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Evenki_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenki alphabet">Evenki</a></li>

<li><a href="Galik_alphabet" title="Galik alphabet">Galik alphabet</a></li>

<li><a href="Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a></li>

<li><a href="Clear_Script" title="Clear Script">Oirat</a></li>

<li><a href="Vagindra_script" title="Vagindra script">Vagindra</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Osage_script" title="Osage script">Osage</a></li>

<li><a href="Osmanya_script" title="Osmanya script">Osmanya</a></li>

<li><a href="Phrygian_alphabet" title="Phrygian alphabet">Phrygian</a></li>

<li><a href="Pisidian_language" title="Pisidian language">Pisidian</a></li>

<li><a href="Runes" title="Runes">Runic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">Anglo-Saxon</a></li>

<li><a href="Cipher_runes" title="Cipher runes">Cipher</a></li>

<li><a href="Dalecarlian_runes" title="Dalecarlian runes">Dalecarlian</a></li>

<li><a href="Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a></li>

<li><a href="Younger_Futhark" title="Younger Futhark">Younger Futhark</a></li>

<li><a href="Gothic_runic_inscriptions" title="Gothic runic inscriptions">Gothic</a></li>

<li><a href="Marcomannic_runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcomannic runes">Marcomannic</a></li>

<li><a href="Medieval_runes" title="Medieval runes">Medieval</a></li>

<li><a href="Staveless_runes" title="Staveless runes">Staveless</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Shavian_alphabet" title="Shavian alphabet">Shavian</a></li>

<li><a href="Sidetic_language" title="Sidetic language">Sidetic</a></li>

<li><a href="Sorang_Sompeng_script" title="Sorang Sompeng script">Sorang Sompeng</a></li>

<li><a href="Sunuwar_alphabet" title="Sunuwar alphabet">Sunuwar</a></li>

<li><a href="Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a></li>

<li><a href="Todhri_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Todhri script">Todhri</a></li>

<li><a href="Kurukh_language#Writing_systems" title="Kurukh language">Tolong Siki</a></li>

<li><a href="Vellara_alphabet" title="Vellara alphabet">Vellara</a></li>

<li><a href="Visible_Speech" title="Visible Speech">Visible Speech</a></li>

<li><a href="Vithkuqi_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Vithkuqi script">Vithkuqi</a></li>

<li><a href="Wancho_language#Orthography" title="Wancho language">Wancho</a></li>

<li><a href="Warang_Citi" title="Warang Citi">Warang Citi</a></li>

<li><a href="Kurdish_alphabets#Yezidi" title="Kurdish alphabets">Yezidi</a></li>

<li><a href="Zaghawa_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaghawa script">Zaghawa</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Non-linear</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a></li>

<li><a href="International_maritime_signal_flags" title="International maritime signal flags">Maritime flags</a></li>

<li><a href="Telegraph_code" title="Telegraph code">Telegraph code</a></li>

<li><a href="New_York_Point" title="New York Point">New York Point</a></li>

<li><a href="Flag_semaphore" title="Flag semaphore">Flag semaphore</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Adinkra_symbols" title="Adinkra symbols">Adinkra</a></li>

<li><a href="Aztec_script" title="Aztec script">Aztec</a></li>

<li><a href="Blissymbols" title="Blissymbols">Blissymbols</a></li>

<li><a href="Dongba_symbols" title="Dongba symbols">Dongba</a></li>

<li><a href="Ersu_Shaba_script" title="Ersu Shaba script">Ersu Shaba</a></li>

<li><a href="Emoji" title="Emoji">Emoji</a></li>

<li><a href="Isotype_(picture_language)" title="Isotype (picture language)">Isotype</a></li>

<li><a href="Kaid%C4%81_glyphs" title="Kaidā glyphs">Kaidā</a></li>

<li><a href="Mi%EA%9E%8Ckmaw_hieroglyphic_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Miꞌkmaw hieroglyphic writing">Miꞌkmaw</a></li>

<li><a href="Mixtec_writing" title="Mixtec writing">Mixtec</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Epoch_Notation_Painting" class="mw-redirect" title="New Epoch Notation Painting">New Epoch Notation Painting</a></li>

<li><a href="Nsibidi" title="Nsibidi">Nsibidi</a></li>

<li><a href="Ojibwe_writing_systems#Anishinaabewibii'iganan" title="Ojibwe writing systems">Anishinaabewibii'iganan</a></li>

<li><a href="Olmec_hieroglyphs" title="Olmec hieroglyphs">Olmec</a></li>

<li><a href="Siglas_poveiras" title="Siglas poveiras">Siglas poveiras</a></li>

<li><a href="Testerian" title="Testerian">Testerian</a></li>

<li><a href="Yerkish" title="Yerkish">Yerkish</a></li>

<li><a href="Zapotec_script" title="Zapotec script">Zapotec</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Logograms0" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Logogram" title="Logogram">Logograms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="Chinese_family_of_scripts" title="Chinese family of scripts">Chinese family of scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified</a></li>

<li><a href="Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional</a></li>

<li><a href="Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone script</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze scripts</a></li>

<li><a href="Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal script</a>

<ul><li><a href="Large_seal_script" title="Large seal script">large</a></li>

<li><a href="Small_seal_script" title="Small seal script">small</a></li>

<li><a href="Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></li>

<li><a href="Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></li>

<li><a href="Sawndip" title="Sawndip">Sawndip</a></li>

<li><a href="Bowen_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowen script">Bowen</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Chinese-influenced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jurchen_script" title="Jurchen script">Jurchen</a></li>

<li><a href="Khitan_large_script" title="Khitan large script">Khitan large script</a></li>

<li><a href="Tangut_script" title="Tangut script">Tangut</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Akkadian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Akkadian cuneiform">Akkadian</a></li>

<li><a href="Assyrian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian cuneiform">Assyrian</a></li>

<li><a href="Elamite_cuneiform" title="Elamite cuneiform">Elamite</a></li>

<li><a href="Hittite_cuneiform" title="Hittite cuneiform">Hittite</a></li>

<li><a href="Cuneiform_Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform Luwian">Luwian</a></li>

<li><a href="Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Sumerian</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Other logosyllabic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anatolian_hieroglyphs" title="Anatolian hieroglyphs">Anatolian</a></li>

<li><a href="Bagam_script" title="Bagam script">Bagam</a></li>

<li><a href="Cretan_hieroglyphs" title="Cretan hieroglyphs">Cretan</a></li>

<li><a href="Isthmian_script" title="Isthmian script">Isthmian</a></li>

<li><a href="Proto-Elamite_script" title="Proto-Elamite script">Proto-Elamite</a></li>

<li><a href="Tenevil" title="Tenevil">Tenevil</a></li>

<li><a href="Yi_script#Classical_Yi" title="Yi script">Yi (Classical)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Logoconsonantal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a></li>

<li><a href="Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a></li>

<li><a href="Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Hieroglyphs</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Numerals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system" title="Hindu–Arabic numeral system">Hindu-Arabic</a></li>

<li><a href="Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Abjad</a></li>

<li><a href="Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic (Greek)</a></li>

<li><a href="Muisca_numerals" title="Muisca numerals">Muisca</a></li>

<li><a href="Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Roman</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sitelen_Pona" title="Sitelen Pona">Sitelen Pona</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Semi-syllabaries0" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Semi-syllabaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-syllabaries">Semi-syllabaries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Full</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Linear_Elamite" title="Linear Elamite">Linear Elamite</a></li>

<li><a href="Celtiberian_script" title="Celtiberian script">Celtiberian</a></li>

<li><a href="Iberian_scripts" title="Iberian scripts">Iberian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Northeastern_Iberian_script" title="Northeastern Iberian script">Northeastern</a></li>

<li><a href="Southeastern_Iberian_script" title="Southeastern Iberian script">Southeastern</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Dunging_script" title="Dunging script">Dunging</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Redundant</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Espanca_script" title="Espanca script">Espanca script</a></li>

<li><a href="Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a></li>

<li><a href="Khitan_small_script" title="Khitan small script">Khitan small script</a></li>

<li><a href="Southwest_Paleohispanic_script" title="Southwest Paleohispanic script">Southwest Paleohispanic</a></li>

<li><a href="Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="ASLwrite" title="ASLwrite">ASLwrite</a></li>

<li><a href="SignWriting" title="SignWriting">SignWriting</a></li>

<li><a href="Stokoe_notation" title="Stokoe notation">Stokoe notation</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Afaka_syllabary" title="Afaka syllabary">Afaka</a></li>

<li><a href="Bamum_script" title="Bamum script">Bamum</a></li>

<li><a href="Byblos_syllabary" title="Byblos syllabary">Byblos</a></li>

<li><a href="Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian Aboriginal</a></li>

<li><a href="Cherokee_syllabary" title="Cherokee syllabary">Cherokee</a></li>

<li><a href="Cypriot_syllabary" title="Cypriot syllabary">Cypriot</a></li>

<li><a href="Cypro-Minoan_syllabary" title="Cypro-Minoan syllabary">Cypro-Minoan</a></li>

<li><a href="Ditema_tsa_Dinoko" title="Ditema tsa Dinoko">Ditema tsa Dinoko</a></li>

<li><a href="Eskayan_script" title="Eskayan script">Eskayan</a></li>

<li><a href="Great_Lakes_Algonquian_syllabics" title="Great Lakes Algonquian syllabics">Great Lakes Algonquian</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Hiragana" title="Hiragana">Hiragana</a></li>

<li><a href="Katakana" title="Katakana">Katakana</a></li>

<li><a href="Man'y%C5%8Dgana" title="Man'yōgana">Man'yōgana</a></li>

<li><a href="Hentaigana" title="Hentaigana">Hentaigana</a></li>

<li><a href="S%C5%8Dgana" title="Sōgana">Sōgana</a></li>

<li><a href="Jindai_moji" title="Jindai moji">Jindai moji</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mende_Kikakui_script" title="Mende Kikakui script">Kikakui</a></li>

<li><a href="Kpelle_syllabary" title="Kpelle syllabary">Kpelle</a></li>

<li><a href="Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li>

<li><a href="Linear_Elamite" title="Linear Elamite">Linear Elamite</a></li>

<li><a href="N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li>

<li><a href="Nwagu_Aneke_script" title="Nwagu Aneke script">Nwagu Aneke script</a></li>

<li><a href="Old_Persian_cuneiform" title="Old Persian cuneiform">Old Persian cuneiform</a></li>

<li><a href="Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Sumerian</a></li>

<li><a href="Woleai_script" title="Woleai script">Woleai</a></li>

<li><a href="Yugtun_script" title="Yugtun script">Yugtun</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Braille_⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑206" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a><span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span>⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Braille cell</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="1829_braille" title="1829 braille">1829 braille</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="International_uniformity_of_braille_alphabets" title="International uniformity of braille alphabets">International uniformity</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Braille_ASCII" title="Braille ASCII">ASCII braille</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Braille_Patterns" title="Braille Patterns">Unicode braille patterns</a></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Braille scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">French-ordered</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Albanian_Braille" title="Albanian Braille">Albanian</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Azeri_Braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Azeri Braille">Azerbaijani</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Catalan_Braille" title="Catalan Braille">Catalan</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Chinese (mainland Mandarin)</a> (largely reassigned)</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Czech_Braille" title="Czech Braille">Czech</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Dutch_Braille" title="Dutch Braille">Dutch</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="English_Braille" title="English Braille">English</a> (<a href="Unified_English_Braille" title="Unified English Braille">Unified English</a>)</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Esperanto_Braille" title="Esperanto Braille">Esperanto</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="French_Braille" title="French Braille">French</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="German_Braille" title="German Braille">German</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Ghanaian_braille" title="Ghanaian braille">Ghanaian</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Guarani_Braille" title="Guarani Braille">Guarani</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Hawaiian_Braille" title="Hawaiian Braille">Hawaiian</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Hungarian_Braille" title="Hungarian Braille">Hungarian</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="I%C3%B1upiaq_Braille" title="Iñupiaq Braille">Iñupiaq</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Irish_Braille" title="Irish Braille">Irish</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Italian_Braille" title="Italian Braille">Italian</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Latvian_Braille" title="Latvian Braille">Latvian</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Lithuanian_Braille" title="Lithuanian Braille">Lithuanian</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Luxembourgish_Braille" title="Luxembourgish Braille">Luxembourgish</a> (extended to 8-dot)</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Maltese_Braille" title="Maltese Braille">Maltese</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="M%C4%81ori_Braille" title="Māori Braille">Māori</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Navajo_Braille" title="Navajo Braille">Navajo</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Nigerian_braille" title="Nigerian braille">Nigerian</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Philippine_Braille" title="Philippine Braille">Philippine</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Polish_Braille" title="Polish Braille">Polish</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Portuguese_Braille" title="Portuguese Braille">Portuguese</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Romanian_Braille" title="Romanian Braille">Romanian</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Samoan_Braille" title="Samoan Braille">Samoan</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Slovak_Braille" title="Slovak Braille">Slovak</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="South_African_braille" title="South African braille">South African</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Spanish_Braille" title="Spanish Braille">Spanish</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese Mandarin</a> (largely reassigned)</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Turkish_Braille" title="Turkish Braille">Turkish</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Vietnamese_Braille" title="Vietnamese Braille">Vietnamese</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Welsh_Braille" title="Welsh Braille">Welsh</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Yugoslav_Braille" title="Yugoslav Braille">Yugoslav</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Zambian_Braille" title="Zambian Braille">Zambian</a></span></li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nordic family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Estonian_Braille" title="Estonian Braille">Estonian</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Faroese_Braille" title="Faroese Braille">Faroese</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Icelandic_Braille" title="Icelandic Braille">Icelandic</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Scandinavian_Braille" title="Scandinavian Braille">Scandinavian</a></span>

<ul><li><span class="nowrap">Danish</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap">Finnish</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap">Greenlandic</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Northern_S%C3%A1mi_Braille" title="Northern Sámi Braille">Northern Sámi</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap">Norwegian</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap">Swedish</span></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russian lineage family<br>i.e. <a href="Cyrillic_alphabets" title="Cyrillic alphabets">Cyrillic</a>-mediated scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Belarusian_Braille" title="Belarusian Braille">Belarusian</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Bulgarian_Braille" title="Bulgarian Braille">Bulgarian</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Kazakh_Braille" title="Kazakh Braille">Kazakh</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Kyrgyz_Braille" title="Kyrgyz Braille">Kyrgyz</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Mongolian_Braille" title="Mongolian Braille">Mongolian</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Russian_Braille" title="Russian Braille">Russian</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Tatar_Braille" title="Tatar Braille">Tatar</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Ukrainian_Braille" title="Ukrainian Braille">Ukrainian</a></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Egyptian lineage family<br>i.e. <a href="Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a>-mediated scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Arabic_Braille" title="Arabic Braille">Arabic</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Persian_Braille" title="Persian Braille">Persian</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Urdu_Braille" title="Urdu Braille">Urdu</a> (Pakistan)</span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indian lineage family<br>i.e. <a href="Bharati_Braille" title="Bharati Braille">Bharati Braille</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Devanagari_Braille" title="Devanagari Braille">Devanagari (Hindi / Marathi / Nepali)</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Bengali_Braille" title="Bengali Braille">Bengali (Bangla / Assamese)</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Gujarati_Braille" title="Gujarati Braille">Gujarati</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Kannada_Braille" title="Kannada Braille">Kannada</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Malayalam_Braille" title="Malayalam Braille">Malayalam</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Punjabi_Braille" title="Punjabi Braille">Punjabi</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Sinhala_Braille" title="Sinhala Braille">Sinhala</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Tamil_Braille" title="Tamil Braille">Tamil</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Telugu_Braille" title="Telugu Braille">Telugu</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Urdu_Braille" title="Urdu Braille">Urdu</a> (India)</span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Ge'ez_Braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez Braille">Amharic</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Armenian_Braille" title="Armenian Braille">Armenian</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Burmese_Braille" title="Burmese Braille">Burmese</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Dzongkha_Braille" title="Dzongkha Braille">Dzongkha</a> (Bhutanese)</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Georgian_Braille" title="Georgian Braille">Georgian</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Greek_Braille" title="Greek Braille">Greek</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Hebrew_Braille" title="Hebrew Braille">Hebrew</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Inuktitut_Braille" title="Inuktitut Braille">Inuktitut</a> (reassigned vowels)</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Khmer_Braille" title="Khmer Braille">Khmer</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Thai_and_Lao_Braille" title="Thai and Lao Braille">Thai and Lao</a> (Japanese vowels)</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Tibetan_Braille" title="Tibetan Braille">Tibetan</a></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reordered</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Algerian_Braille" title="Algerian Braille">Algerian Braille</a> (obsolete)</span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Frequency-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="American_Braille" title="American Braille">American Braille</a> (obsolete)</span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Independent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap">Chinese semi-syllabaries</span>

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Mainland Chinese Mandarin</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese Mandarin</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Two-cell_Chinese_Braille" title="Two-cell Chinese Braille">Two-cell Chinese (Shuangpin)</a></span></li></ul></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Japanese_Braille" title="Japanese Braille">Japanese</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Korean_Braille" title="Korean Braille">Korean</a></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eight-dot</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Luxembourgish_Braille" title="Luxembourgish Braille">Luxembourgish</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Braille_kanji" title="Braille kanji">Kanji</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Gardner%E2%80%93Salinas_braille_codes" title="Gardner–Salinas braille codes">Gardner–Salinas braille codes</a> (GS8)</span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols in braille</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Braille_music" title="Braille music">Braille music</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Canadian_currency_tactile_feature" title="Canadian currency tactile feature">Canadian currency marks</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Computer_Braille_Code" title="Computer Braille Code">Computer Braille Code</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Gardner%E2%80%93Salinas_braille_codes" title="Gardner–Salinas braille codes">Gardner–Salinas braille codes</a> (science; GS8/GS6)</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="IPA_Braille" title="IPA Braille">International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Nemeth_Braille" title="Nemeth Braille">Nemeth braille code</a></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Braille_technology" title="Braille technology">Braille technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Braille_e-book" title="Braille e-book">Braille e-book</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Braille_embosser" title="Braille embosser">Braille embosser</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Braille_translator" title="Braille translator">Braille translator</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Braille_watch" title="Braille watch">Braille watch</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Mountbatten_Brailler" title="Mountbatten Brailler">Mountbatten Brailler</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Optical_braille_recognition" title="Optical braille recognition">Optical braille recognition</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Perforation" title="Perforation">Perforation</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Perkins_Brailler" title="Perkins Brailler">Perkins Brailler</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Refreshable_braille_display" title="Refreshable braille display">Refreshable braille display</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Slate_and_stylus" title="Slate and stylus">Slate and stylus</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Braigo" title="Braigo">Braigo</a></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Louis_Braille" title="Louis Braille">Louis Braille</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Charles_Barbier" title="Charles Barbier">Charles Barbier</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="R%C3%B3%C5%BCa_Czacka" title="Róża Czacka">Róża Czacka</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Valentin_Ha%C3%BCy" title="Valentin Haüy">Valentin Haüy</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Harris_Mowbray" title="Harris Mowbray">Harris Mowbray</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Thakur_Vishva_Narain_Singh" title="Thakur Vishva Narain Singh">Thakur Vishva Narain Singh</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Sabriye_Tenberken" title="Sabriye Tenberken">Sabriye Tenberken</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="William_Bell_Wait" title="William Bell Wait">William Bell Wait</a></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Braille_Institute_of_America" title="Braille Institute of America">Braille Institute of America</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Braille_Without_Borders" title="Braille Without Borders">Braille Without Borders</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Japan_Braille_Library" title="Japan Braille Library">Japan Braille Library</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="National_Braille_Association" title="National Braille Association">National Braille Association</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap">Blindness organizations</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap">Schools for the blind</span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="American_Printing_House_for_the_Blind" title="American Printing House for the Blind">American Printing House for the Blind</a></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="Tactile_alphabet" title="Tactile alphabet">tactile alphabets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Decapoint" title="Decapoint">Decapoint</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="New_York_Point" title="New York Point">New York Point</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Night_writing" title="Night writing">Night writing</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Vibratese" title="Vibratese">Vibratese</a></span></li></ul>

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Accessible_publishing" title="Accessible publishing">Accessible publishing</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="Braille_literacy" title="Braille literacy">Braille literacy</a></span></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="RoboBraille" title="RoboBraille">RoboBraille</a></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Literacy65" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Literacy65" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Literacy" title="Literacy">Literacy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Learning</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Adolescent_literacy" title="Adolescent literacy">Adolescent literacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Emergent_literacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergent literacy">Emergent literacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Family_literacy" title="Family literacy">Family literacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_illiteracy" title="Functional illiteracy">Functional illiteracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Phonics" title="Phonics">Phonics</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-literacy" title="Post-literacy">Post-literacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Whole_language" title="Whole language">Whole language</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_countries_by_literacy_rate" title="List of countries by literacy rate">List of countries by literacy rate</a></li>

<li><a href="Literacy_in_Canada" title="Literacy in Canada">Canada</a></li>

<li><a href="Literacy_in_India" title="Literacy in India">India</a>

<ul><li><a href="Literacy_in_Bihar" title="Literacy in Bihar">Bihar</a></li></ul></li>

<li>New Zealand

<ul><li><a href="Literacy_in_Tokelau" title="Literacy in Tokelau">Tokelau</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Literacy_in_Romania" title="Literacy in Romania">Romania</a></li>

<li><a href="Literacy_in_the_United_States" title="Literacy in the United States">United States</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="International_Literacy_Association" title="International Literacy Association">International Literacy Association</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Literacy_Day" title="International Literacy Day">International Literacy Day</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Council_of_Teachers_of_English" title="National Council of Teachers of English">National Council of Teachers of English</a></li>

<li><a href="No_Child_Left_Behind_Act" title="No Child Left Behind Act">No Child Left Behind Act</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Marie_Clay" title="Marie Clay">Marie Clay</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruth_Johnson_Colvin" title="Ruth Johnson Colvin">Ruth Johnson Colvin</a></li>

<li><a href="Paulo_Freire" title="Paulo Freire">Paulo Freire</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Paul_Gee" title="James Paul Gee">James Paul Gee</a></li>

<li><a href="Griffith_Jones_(priest)" title="Griffith Jones (priest)">Griffith Jones</a></li>

<li><a href="Frank_Laubach" title="Frank Laubach">Frank Laubach</a></li>

<li><a href="Brian_Street" title="Brian Street">Brian Street</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Agricultural_literacy" title="Agricultural literacy">Agricultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Braille_literacy" title="Braille literacy">Braille</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_literacy" title="Carbon literacy">Carbon</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_literacy" title="Computational literacy">Computational</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_literacy" title="Computer literacy">Computer</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_literacy" title="Critical literacy">Critical</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_literacy" title="Cultural literacy">Cultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_literacy" title="Digital literacy">Digital</a></li>

<li><a href="Diaspora_literacy" title="Diaspora literacy">Diaspora</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_literacy" title="Ecological literacy">Ecological</a></li>

<li><a href="Electracy" title="Electracy">Electracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotional_literacy" title="Emotional literacy">Emotional</a></li>

<li><a href="Faith_literacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Faith literacy">Faith</a></li>

<li><a href="Financial_literacy" title="Financial literacy">Financial</a></li>

<li><a href="Geo-literacy" title="Geo-literacy">Geo-literacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Graph_literacy" title="Graph literacy">Graph</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">Health</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mental_health_literacy" title="Mental health literacy">Mental health</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Literacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupational Safety and Health Literacy">Occupational Safety and Health</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Information_literacy" title="Information literacy">Information</a></li>

<li>Information literacies</li>

<li><a href="Information_and_media_literacy" title="Information and media literacy">Information and media</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_literacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal literacy">Legal</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_literacy" title="Media literacy">Media</a></li>

<li><a href="Metaliteracy" title="Metaliteracy">Metaliteracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Multiliteracies" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiliteracies">Multiliteracies</a></li>

<li><a href="Musical_literacy" title="Musical literacy">Musical</a></li>

<li><a href="Numeracy" title="Numeracy">Numeracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Object_Literacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Object Literacy">Object</a></li>

<li><a href="Oracy" title="Oracy">Oracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_literacy" title="Political literacy">Political</a></li>

<li><a href="Power_literacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Power literacy">Power</a></li>

<li><a href="Physical_literacy" title="Physical literacy">Physical</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychological_literacy" title="Psychological literacy">Psychological</a></li>

<li><a href="Racial_literacy" title="Racial literacy">Racial</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_literacy" title="Religious literacy">Religious</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">Scientific</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_literacy" title="Social literacy">Social</a></li>

<li><a href="Statistical_literacy" title="Statistical literacy">Statistical</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_literacy" title="Technological literacy">Technological</a></li>

<li><a href="Transliteracy" title="Transliteracy">Transliteracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_literacy" title="Visual literacy">Visual</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aliteracy" title="Aliteracy">Aliteracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Asemic_writing" title="Asemic writing">Asemic writing</a></li>

<li><a href="Children's_literature" title="Children's literature">Children's literature</a></li>

<li><a href="Composition_studies" title="Composition studies">Composition studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Dyslexia" title="Dyslexia">Dyslexia</a></li>

<li><a href="Literacy_test" title="Literacy test">Literacy test</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_consumption" title="Media consumption">Media consumption</a></li>

<li><a href="Orality" title="Orality">Orality</a></li>

<li><a href="Oral_literature" title="Oral literature">Oral literature</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-literate_society" title="Post-literate society">Post-literate society</a></li>

<li><a href="Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a></li>

<li><a href="Writing" title="Writing">Writing</a></li>

</ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Writing_and_writing_material84" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Writing_and_writing_material84" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Writing" title="Writing">Writing</a> and <a href="Writing_material" title="Writing material">writing material</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Enduring</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plant-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amate" title="Amate">Amate</a>

<ul><li><i><a href="Trema_micrantha" class="mw-redirect" title="Trema micrantha">Trema micrantha</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Ficus_aurea" title="Ficus aurea">Ficus aurea</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Bamboo_and_wooden_slips" title="Bamboo and wooden slips">Bamboo and wooden slips</a></li>

<li><a href="Birch_bark_manuscript" title="Birch bark manuscript">Birch bark</a> (<a href="Birch_bark" title="Birch bark"><i>Betula</i></a>)</li>

<li><a href="Folding-book_manuscript" title="Folding-book manuscript">Folding-book manuscript</a>

<ul><li><i><a href="Streblus_asper" title="Streblus asper">Streblus asper</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Paper_mulberry" title="Paper mulberry">Broussonetia papyrifera</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ola_leaf" title="Ola leaf">Ola leaf</a> (<i><a href="Corypha_umbraculifera" title="Corypha umbraculifera">Corypha umbraculifera</a></i>)</li>

<li><a href="Palm-leaf_manuscript" title="Palm-leaf manuscript">Palm leaf</a> (<i><a href="Borassus" title="Borassus">Borassus</a></i>)</li>

<li><a href="Paper" title="Paper">Paper</a></li>

<li><a href="Papyrus" title="Papyrus">Papyrus</a> (<i><a href="Cyperus_papyrus" title="Cyperus papyrus">Cyperus papyrus</a></i>)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Animal skin

<ul><li><a href="Parchment" title="Parchment">Parchment</a></li>

<li><a href="Vellum" title="Vellum">Vellum</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Metals

<ul><li><a href="Intaglio_(printmaking)" title="Intaglio (printmaking)">Intaglio</a></li>

<li><a href="Stamping_(metalworking)" title="Stamping (metalworking)">Stamping</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Oracle_bone" title="Oracle bone">Oracle bone</a></li>

<li><a href="Photographic_film" title="Photographic film">Photographic film</a></li>

<li><a href="Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">Stone</a>

<ul><li><a href="Geoglyph" title="Geoglyph">Geoglyph</a></li>

<li><a href="Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">Petroglyph</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Tablets

<ul><li><a href="Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">Clay tablet</a></li>

<li><a href="Slate_(writing)" title="Slate (writing)">Slate</a></li>

<li><a href="Wax_tablet" title="Wax tablet">Wax tablet</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Textile_printing" title="Textile printing">Textile printing</a>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Impermanent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Electronic_paper" title="Electronic paper">Electronic paper</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_visual_display" title="Electronic visual display">Screen</a></li>

<li><a href="Skywriting" title="Skywriting">Skywriting</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Carrier objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Codex" title="Codex">Codex</a></li>

<li><a href="Notebook" title="Notebook">Notebook</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_media" title="Electronic media">Electronic media</a></li>

<li><a href="Hu_(ritual_baton)" title="Hu (ritual baton)"><i>Hu</i>/<i>Shaku</i> (baton)</a></li>

<li><a href="Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">Inscription</a>

<ul><li><a href="Relief" title="Relief">Bas-relief</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Manuscript" title="Manuscript">Manuscript</a>

<ul><li><a href="Palimpsest" title="Palimpsest">Palimpsest</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Microform" title="Microform">Microform</a></li>

<li><a href="Scroll" title="Scroll">Scroll</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><a href="History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">List of writing systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Written_language" title="Written language">Written language</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8192#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1398" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8192#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1398" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4053297-5">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Writing systems"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2024000391">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="文字"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00567844">Japan</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="písmo"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph115978&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/012801">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/1aa7ad14-436c-4688-885b-f229a4a9ec27">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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